Rise of the Paper Son

by Isis Quan

Following the discovery of gold in California, individuals from around the globe rushed to the newly minted state, hoping to strike it rich. Among them were Chinese immigrants, drawn  by dreams of prosperity on Gold Mountain. Yet, burgeoning anti-Chinese sentiments soon birthed discriminatory legislation, threatening to halt Chinese immigration completely. However, a significant shift occurred when a fire altered the landscape of immigration. Chinese-American citizens ingeniously devised the practice of “Paper Sons,” falsely claiming unrelated individuals as their direct relatives, thereby circumventing the restrictive measures of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. 

Gold was discovered in Northern California in 1849, and by the following year, California legislators were already taking steps to restrict certain immigrant groups from participating in mining. The Foreign Miners’ Tax Act of 1850 imposed a $20 monthly tax and primarily targeted the Chinese population. Although it was swiftly repealed, it was replaced by the Foreign Miners’ License Tax of 1852, which reduced the fee to $4 per month. These taxes effectively drove most Chinese out of the Gold Rush mines, and led them to pursue lower-wage labor opportunities, such as restaurants and laundries. Despite this transition, anti-Chinese sentiments persisted, resulting in the enactment of the exclusion act, which prohibited all Chinese immigration except for specific labor categories. This legislation remained in effect until 1943, with immigration not fully unrestricted until 1952. 

Chinese immigration to America came to a standstill until 1906 when an earthquake struck San Francisco. While the temblor was devastating, the ensuing fires were even more destructive, resulting in an estimated 3,000 fatalities and the obliteration of 80% of the city. Among the buildings lost was San Francisco’s city hall, which housed all public birth records. Chinese immigrants in California saw an opportunity to circumvent the exclusion act. Individuals already residing in the U.S. could now claim birthright citizenship (through the Wong Kim Ark case of 1898) and any children they had abroad retained their American citizenship. This loophole enabled the sponsorship of supposed “relatives” from China, regardless of actual familial ties, giving rise to the concept of the “Paper Son.” Chinese residents in America would return to China and falsely claim to have children there, who would then immigrate to the U.S. as citizens. Typically, it was Chinese men who would assert the existence of one or more sons in China to exploit this strategy. Allegedly, for all the Chinese who claimed citizenship, each Chinese woman in California in 1906 would have needed to give birth to 600 sons (calmigration.org/papersons). Of course, immigration authorities were aware of this, but they found it difficult to refute the claims without developing new procedures. 

The concept of Paper Sons swiftly emerged as a lucrative opportunity for Chinese individuals in California. In China, many men were willing to pay generously for the chance to immigrate to America in search of wealth. Paper Son slots could be sold to relatives or even strangers without any official documentation required. However, measures were taken to counter the rise of fraudulent Paper Sons. At Angel Island, inspectors conducted thorough investigations to discern genuine claims. Detailed inquiries regarding the Paper Sons’ childhood homes, families, and more were commonplace. The scrutiny was so rigorous that even legitimate relatives occasionally failed the tests. Despite the stringent examinations, rejections and deportations were uncommon. The California Migration Museum notes that “The fact of fraudulent Chinese immigration was accepted even as total Exclusion was pursued as a political goal.” Nonetheless, Paper Sons lived in constant fear of deportation due to their illegal entry into the country. 

What drove Chinese individuals to immigrate to America despite facing numerous barriers and anti-Chinese sentiments? As noted above, early waves of Chinese immigrants were drawn by the promise of wealth on “Gold Mountain,” but they also fled a country plagued by financial ruin and conflict. The Opium Wars, spanning from 1839 to 1860, inflicted significant devastation. Subsequent decades brought continued strife and poverty to China, arguably a significant factor in delaying its economic recovery until the 1970s. Thus, it’s evident that many Chinese immigrants sought better lives in America, where even low-wage jobs offered better opportunities. However, unlike many other expatriates, Chinese immigrants, prior to the Chinese Exclusion Act, harbored hopes of eventually returning to China. Their immigration to California was a temporary endeavor; they intended to send money home, amass fortunes, and return as heroes one day. The Chinese Exclusion Act complicated this aspiration, as leaving the country risked permanent exclusion from America. Nonetheless, even as new waves of Chinese immigrants arrived as Paper Sons, many remained rooted in China. Despite potentially never reuniting with their families, they dedicated their lives to sending money back home to support relatives enduring poverty in China’s struggling regions. 

So, what became of the Paper Sons? As stated earlier, restrictions on Chinese immigration weren’t lifted until 1952, despite the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943. In fact, the U.S. government intensified exclusion efforts with the Immigration Act of 1924, which extended restrictions to nearly all Asians, particularly targeting the Japanese. The practice of Paper Sons persisted for decades until not only were immigration restrictions eased, but the U.S. government made efforts to legitimize the Paper Sons residing in America. A confession program was initiated in 1957 to grant these individuals legitimate citizenship, albeit with certain conditions. They were required to disclose any other Paper Sons they knew of, as well as any Communist activity. Consequently, while some chose to come forward, many Paper Sons opted to maintain their secrecy. This has led to families today discovering that their familial relationships are not as they had believed, as some secrets are taken to the grave. In essence, the legacy of Paper Sons persists as a testament to the repercussions of immigration policies and the lengths individuals go to in pursuit of a better life.